Date of Award

12-18-2024

Author's School

Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

Author's Department

Anthropology

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Degree Type

Dissertation

Abstract

Pastoral communities around the globe form herding strategies based on traditional ecological knowledge to make sense of mutualistic human, animal, and environmental interactions. Pastoralists develop culturally specific traditional knowledge systems surrounding animals and environments that shape decision-making in herding practices and resource management strategies during times of crisis and change. To mitigate socio-political and climatic changes, such as conflict or competition over pastures, or flooding and drought, pastoralists convert local ecological knowledge into strategies including animal mobility across varying altitudes, pasture maintenance through irrigation and pasture rotation, and extended kin support for herding and caravanning. Previous archaeological studies have revealed that pastoralism has a long history of resilience and continuity across time and space in the Andes. However, the nuances of camelid management strategies and pastoral practices in response to sociopolitical processes and environmental changes have yet to be fully examined. This dissertation addresses two overarching research questions: 1) What ecological zones did herders choose for camelid and what does the animal diets reveal about herding strategies, such as local herding, long-distance mobility, or provisioning and foddering? 2) How were traditional pastoral strategies informed by socio-political (i.e., emergence and decline of ancient political states, settlement changes, heightened conflict) and environmental changes (i.e., long-term drought and flooding)? To answer these questions, this dissertation presents three case studies situated in the South American Andes from ca. 2000 BCE to 1540 CE to explore the various factors that influenced camelid herding strategies in the past. In Chapter 2, I conduct a multi-regionally and temporally comparative analysis of ancient Andean pastoralism to examine how people utilized diverse ecozones and resources during broad cultural and political changes in the past. This meta-analysis examines the influences of ecozones, population (dis)aggregation, and political (dis)integration on camelid herding practices as reflective of individual and communal decision-making. I compiled published and newly analyzed camelid carbon and nitrogen isotope values (n of samples = 504) obtained from bone collagen from 39 archaeological and modern sites spanning from the northern to the southern Andes and ranging in time between 2000 BCE and 1540 CE. My re-evaluation of these data shows that changes in camelid dietary patterns correlate with socio-political and environmental variables in the past, the likely outcome of herders responding to natural and anthropogenic pressures. Among other things, the data show that camelid ingestion of maize, which is not a natural camelid food, seems to correlate with supra-regional agricultural food-production regimes and exchange networks of early expansive states. In contrast, sites occupied during times of political fragmentation likely engaged in local subsistence strategies and localized herding practices. The distinct isotopic compositions of camelids from urban and rural sites reflect the different social roles of camelids, outlining the importance of contextual background for understanding animal management strategies. In Chapter 3, I examine herding strategies among communities participating in early Andean states where herders played an important role in provisioning and mobilizing resources. For the purpose of this study, I characterize camelid herding practices as: (1) short-term movements between distinct pastures located within the same altitudinal zone, (2) vertical or seasonal transhumance between highland and lowland pastures, (3) long-distance caravan journeys between highlands and lowlands, and (4) foddering or grazing on fallowed fields. I conducted multi-isotope analyses (δ13C, δ15N, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr) of camelid bone (n = 10) and tooth remains (n = 52) from four archaeological sites associated with the Middle Horizon (500 – 1100 CE) Tiwanaku state: Wila Pucara (3800 masl), Pokotia (3800 masl), ACH-10 (3800 masl), and Omo M10 (1120 masl). Stable carbon and nitrogen analysis bone remains document long-term dietary patterns, while stable carbon isotope composition of sequential camelid tooth enamel sections reflects seasonal variations of camelid diets and movements in the first few years of life. New evidence for the consumption of maize or other C4 plants in a highland camelid indicates that some camelids were provisioned with crops. A subset of tooth enamel samples were also submitted for strontium analysis which confirms that Tiwanaku-affiliated herders pastured their camelids in highland environments. Intra-site variation in camelid herding practices provides evidence that these strategies were not standardized across different sites in the south-central Andes. These case studies indicate that Tiwanaku herding occurred predominately in the highlands, in which sites located further from the urban center had more variable access to different pastures or foddered their camelids. In Chapter 4, I examine the influence of political fragmentation, conflict, and long-term drought in the south-central Andean highlands and lowlands during the Late Intermediate Period (LIP; 1100-1450 CE) following the disintegration of the Tiwanaku state using four additional case studies: the fortified Colla site of Ayawiri (4,100 masl) and Konto Konto (~3800 masl) in the Lake Titicaca Basin, and the coastal Cabuza settlement of Los Batanes (500 masl), and the coastal Chiribaya Alta site of the eponymous culture (below 200 masl). These archaeological sites provide a multi-regional and localized perspective on pastoral practices. Multi-isotope analysis (δ13C, δ15N, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr) conducted on camelid bone and teeth samples allowed for the reconstruction of camelid pastoral practices (vertical mobility, highland pasturing, and foddering) during the Late Intermediate Period. The results provide evidence of distinct mitigation strategies involving traditional knowledge-based approaches to camelid herding practices during a time of prolonged drought, decrease inter-regional exchange networks, and increased conflict. Highland herding population seems to have risked confrontation with neighboring communities in order to herd their camelids as far as the eastern Andes. These findings also provide the first evidence of maize consumption in the Ilo valley (below 200 masl), where camelids ingested C4 plants either from foddering or grazing on fallowed fields. By engaging in diverse herding practices, LIP communities were able to adapt to external stress resulting in the continuity of pastoralism over time. Ancient pastoral strategies not only involve environmental knowledge to maintain herds but also include socio-cultural and political knowledge systems that impacted decision-making and herding practices. This dissertation provides insights into the resilience of pastoral communities in extremely diverse landscapes. This study also highlights the significance of examining mutualistic human, animal, and environmental interactions as reflective of indigenous knowledge. These findings demonstrate how an in-depth investigation of diverse camelid herding strategies can aid in the interpretation of herding strategies in the ancient Andes and strengthen comparative studies of global pastoralism in the archaeological record.

Language

English (en)

Chair and Committee

Sarah Baitzel

Committee Members

Helina Woldekiros; Michael Frachetti; Rachel Reid; Xinyi Liu

Available for download on Tuesday, December 18, 2029

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